LISP is worth learning for the profound
enlightenment
experience you will have
when you finally get it. That experience will
make
you a better programmer for the rest
of your days, even if you never actually
use
LISP itself a lot.
Eric S Raymond
"How to Become a Hacker"
Scheme is one of the classic programming langauges and has been enormously influential through the years because of its clean, elegant combination of fundamential programming language features. Racket, which we are using in CSE 413, is a is a more recent dialect of Scheme but these notes generally apply equally well to both. We've mostly updated the notes to refer to Racket and when the differences between Scheme and Racket particularly matter we'll be sure to point out the changes. But don't be spooked if a few references to Scheme have slipped through.
Lisp/functional programming application areas:
Lisp was developed in the late 50s by John McCarthy. The Scheme dialect was developed by Guy Steele and Gerry Sussman in the mid 70s. In the 80s, the Common Lisp standard was devised. Common Lisp is a kitchen sink language: many many features -- Scheme is cleaner/smaller. DrScheme dialect of Scheme became "Racket" in 2010.
Some primitive (atomic) data types:
Case is significant in Racket for symbols. (It isn't significant for symbols in the R5RS Scheme standard, which means it isn't significant for variable names.) Recommendation: write your programs so that they work correctly whether or not case is significant in symbols. Note that you can have non-alphanumeric characters such as + or - or ! in the middle of symbols. (You can't have parentheses, though.)
Here are some of the basic operators that scheme provides for the above datatypes.
Some functions are predicates, that is, they are truth tests. In Racket, they return #f or #t.
Conventions: names of predicates (tests) end in ?, for example null?. (But not operators.) Functions with side effects (shudder -- we will avoid mostly) end in !
Ok, so we know the names of a bunch of operators, how do we use them? Racket provides us with a uniform syntax for invoking functions:
(function arg1 arg2 ... argN)
Examples:
(+ 2 3) (abs -4) (+ (* 2 3) 8) (+ 3 4 5 1) ;; note that + and * can take an arbitrary number of arguments ;; actually so can - and / but you'll get a headache trying to remember ;; what it means ;; ;; semicolon means the rest of the line is a comment
Evaluation: all of the items inside the parentheses (including the function!) are evaluated individually, then the value of the first item (which had better be a function) is applied to the remaining items (its arguments). More on this below.
Users typically interact with Racket though a read-eval-print loop. Racket waits for the user to type an expression, reads it, evaluates it, and prints the return value. Racket expressions (often called S-Expressions, for Symbolic Expressions) are either lists or atoms. Lists are composed of other S-Expressions (note the recursive definition). Lists are often used to represent function calls, where the list consists of a function name followed by its arguments. However, lists can also used to represent arbitrary collections of data. In these notes, we'll generally write:
<S-expression> => <return-value>
when we want to show an S-expression and the evaluation of that S-expression. For instance:
(+ 2 3) => 5 (cons 1 '() ) => (1)
Evaluation rules:
(+ 2 3) => 5 (+ (* 3 3) 10) => 19 (equal? 10 (+ 4 6)) => #t
Perhaps the single most important built in data type in Racket is the list. In Racket, lists are unbounded, possibly heterogeneous collections of data. Examples:
(x) (elmer fudd) (2 3 5 7 11) (2 3 x y "zoo" 2.9) ()Box-and-arrow representation of lists:
_______________ ________________
| | | | | |
| o | ----|----->| o | o |
|___|___|_______| |____|___|___|___|
| | |
| | |
elmer fudd ()
Or
_______________ _____________
| | | | | / |
| o | ----|----->| o | / |
|___|___|_______| |____|___|/___|
| |
| |
elmer fudd
Notes:
Here are some important functions that operate on lists:
Racket also predefines compositions of car and cdr, e.g., (cadr s) is defined as (car (cdr s)).) All 28 combinations of 2, 3, and 4 a's and d's are defined.
Predicates for lists:
If we try evaluating (list elmer fudd) we'll get an error. Why? Because Racket will treat the atom elmer as a variable name and try to look for its binding, which it won't find. We therefore need to "quote" the names elmer and fudd, which means that we want to suppress evaluation and have scheme treat them literally. Racket provides syntax for doing this. The evaluation for quoted objects is that a quoted object evalutes to itself.
'x => x (list elmer fudd) => error! elmer is unbound symbol (list 'elmer 'fudd) => (elmer fudd) (elmer fudd) => error! elmer is unknown function '(elmer fudd) => (elmer fudd) (equal? (x) (x)) => error! x is unknown function (equal? '(x) '(x)) => #t (cons 'x '(y z)) => (x y z) (cons 'x () ) => (x) (car '(1 2 3)) => 1 (cdr (cons 1 '(2 3))) => (2 3)
Note that there are 3 ways to make a list:
Internally, quoted symbols and lists are represented using the special function quote. When the reader reads '(a b) it translates this into (quote (a b)), which is then passed onto the evaluator. When the evaluator sees an expression of the form (quote s-expr) it just returns s-expr. The operation quote is sometimes called a "special form" because unlike most other Racket operations, it doesn't evaluate its argument. The quote mark is an example of what is called "syntactic sugar."
'x => x (quote x) => x
(Alan Perlis: "syntactic sugar causes cancer of the semicolon".)
Racket has both local and global variables. In Racket, a variable is a name which is bound to some data object (using a pointer). There are no type declarations for variables. The rule for evaluating symbols: a symbol evaluates to the value of the variable it names. We can bind variables using the special form define:
The following declares a variable called clam (if one doesn't exist) and makes it refer to 17:
(define clam 17) clam => 17 (define clam 23) ; this rebinds clam to 23 (+ clam 1) => 24 (define bert '(a b c)) (define ernie bert)
Racket uses pointers: bert and ernie now both point at the same list.
In CSE 413 we'll only use define to bind global variables, and we won't rebind them once they are bound, except when debugging (i.e., binding is only used to associate names with values; we will not use it as in C/C++/Java to change the values of variables as the program executes).
We can also use define to bind variables that are the names of functions:
(define (double x) ; x is local to the function double (* 2 x))
This is actually a shorthand for:
(define double (lambda (x) (* 2 x)))
where lambda is a special form that defines an anonymous function.
We use the special form let to declare and bind local, temporary variables. Example:
;; general form of let
(let ((name1 value1)
(name2 value2)
...
(nameN valueN))
expression1
expression2
...
expressionQ)
;; reverse a list and double it
;; less efficient version:
(define (r2 x)
(append (reverse x) (reverse x)))
;; more efficient version:
(define (r2 x)
(let ((r (reverse x)))
(append r r)))
In Racket, unlike Scheme, square brackets work just the same as ordinary parentheses (as long as you close an open square bracket with a closed square bracket and an open parenthesis with a closed parenthesis). They are used by convention in a few places to improve readability, for example for the bindings in let. A Racket programmer would typically write the last example as:
(define (r2 x)
(let ([r (reverse x)])
(append r r)))
We will not be overly particular about which style you use in CSE 413.
A problem with let is that while the bindings are being created, expressions cannot refer to bindings that have been made previously. For example, this doesn't work, since x isn't known outside the body:
(let ([x 3]
[y (+ x 1)])
(+ x y))
To get around this problem, Racket provides us with let*:
(let* ([x 3]
[y (+ x 1)])
(+ x y))
define can be used to rebind a variable to a new value (but we won't do it, right?) Racket also has an assignment statement:
(set! x 42)
... which we won't use either. Good scheme style is to avoid using set!, and to program without side effects. Consider carefully whether you really need non-local variables. They are reasonable for constants and of course functions. Use lots of small functions.
Bad style:
(define badbadbad () ) (define (r2 x) (set! badbadbab (reverse x)) (append badbadbad badbadbad))
(define (function-name param1 param2 ... paramk) expr1 expr2 ... exprN)
expr1, expr2, ..., exprN are evaluated in order, and Racket returns the value of exprN. However, since the values of expr1, ... exprN-1 are thrown away, the only reason to do this is if they have side effects. So in CSE 413 we'll write functions with just a single expression in the body.
Some places you might use multiple expressions, though, would be for a bunch of print statements, file operations, etc (which of course have side effects).
(define (double x) (* 2 x)) (double 4) => 8 (define (centigrade-to-fahrenheit c) (+ (* 1.8 c) 32.0)) (centigrade-to-fahrenheit 100.0) => 212.0
The x in the double function is the formal parameter. It has scope only within the function. Consider:
(define x 10) (define (add1 x) (+ x 1)) (define (double-add x) (double (add1 x))) (double-add x) => 22Three different x's here...
Functions can take 0 arguments:
(define (test) 3) (test) => 3
Note that this is not the same as binding a variable to a value:
(define not-a-function 3)
not-a-function => 3
(not-a-function) => Error ("aplication: not a procedure;")
We have been using the define special form to define functions
(define (plus x y) (+ x y))This syntax is actually an abbreviation for what is really going on. The fundamental form of define is (define name value). The function definition above really means:
(define plus
(lambda (a b)
(+ a b)))
lambda is a special form that defines an anonymous function - the function value that we are binding to plus in this case. The value of the above lambda expression is an anonymous function that takes two arguments and produces their sum.
The lambda special form is
(lambda (parm1 parm2 ... parmk) ; list of formals (parameters)
expr) ; body
Evaluating a lambda expression produces an anonymous function value that, when applied, takes k arguments and returns the result of evaluating expr. As you would expect, the parameters are lexically scoped and can only be used in expr.
We could, if we want, evaluate a lambda expression to get an anonymous function value, then immediately apply that function value to arguments to get a value:
((lambda (a b)
(+ a b))
2 3) => 5
This is a rather awkward way to compute (+ 2 3) but does
make the point that lambda defines an ordinarly function
value. We will have lots of uses for anonymous functions later when
we see higher-order functions (functions that have other
functions as arguments). For now it is mainly important to realize
that the (define (fn arg1 ... argn) expr) syntax is just
shorthand for an ordinary (define fn value) special form,
where the value is an anonymous function given by a lambda
expression.
Racket provides three primitives for equality and identity testing:
(define clam '(1 2 3)) (define octopus clam) ; clam and octopus refer to the same list (eq? 'clam 'clam) => #t (eq? clam clam) => #t (eq? clam octopus) => #t (eq? clam '(1 2 3)) => #f (or () ) (eq? '(1 2 3) '(1 2 3)) => #f (eq? 10 10) => #t ; (generally, but imp. dependent) (eq? 10.0 10.0) => #f ; (generally, but imp. dependent) (eqv? 10 10) => #t ; always (eqv? 10.0 10.0) => #t ; always (eqv? 10.0 10) =>#f ; no conversion btwn types (equal? clam '(1 2 3)) => #t (equal? '(1 2 3) '(1 2 3)) => #t
Racket provides = for comparing two numbers, and will
coerce one type to another. For example, (equal? 0
0.0) returns #f, but (= 0 0.0)
returns #t.
Racket provides us with several useful logical operators, including and, or, and not.
(and expr1 expr2 ... expr-n) ; return true if all the expr's are true ; ... or more precisely, return expr-n if all the expr's evaluate to ; something other than #f. Otherwise return #f (and (equal? 2 3) (equal? 2 2) #t) => #f (or expr1 expr2 ... expr-n) ; return true if at least one of the expr's is true ; ... or more precisely, return expr-j if expr-j is the first expr that ; evaluates to something other than #f. Otherwise return #f. (or (equal? 2 3) (equal? 2 2) #t) => #t (or (equal? 2 3) 'fred (equal? 3 (/ 1 0))) => 'fred (define (single-digit x) (and (> x 0) (< x 10))) (not expr) ; return true if expr is false (not (= "10" 20)) => #t
In Racket and and or just evaluate as far as needed to decide whether to return #t or #f (like the && and || operators in Java/C/C++). However, one could easily write a version that evaluates all its arguments.
(if a b c) if a evaluates to true, then the result of evaluating b is returned, otherwise the result of evaluating c is returned. if is a special form, like quote, because it doesn't automatically evaluate all of its arguments.
(if (= 5 (+ 2 3)) 10 20) => 10
(if (= 0 1) (/ 1 0) (+ 2 3)) => 5
; note that the (/ 1 0) is not evaluated
(define (my-max x y)
(if (> x y) x y))
(my-max 10 20) => 20
(define (my-max3 x y z)
(if (and (> x y) (> x z))
x
(if (> y z)
y
z)))
The general form of the cond special form is:
(cond (test1 expr1)
(test2 expr2)
....
(else exprn))
As soon as we find a test that evaluates to true, then we evaluate the corresponding expr and return its value. The remaining tests are not evaluated, and all the other expr's are not evaluated. If none of the tests evaluate to true then we evaluate exprn (the "else" part) and return its value. (You can leave off the else part but it's not good style unless you can prove in advance that at least one of the tests must be true in any evaluation.)
(define (weather f)
(cond ((> f 80) 'too-hot)
((> f 60) 'nice)
((< f 35) 'too-cold)
(else 'typical-seattle)))
Scoping refers to the visibility of names in a program. Racket uses lexical scoping, which means that the names visible at any point of the program (in a given scope) are only the local names and any names visible in the lexically enclosing scope. The toplevel scope is the global scope. Function definitions, let, and let* define new scopes.
(define z 100)
(define (squid w)
(clam w z)) ; w and z are visible here
(define (test x)
(let ((y (* 2 x))) ; x, y, and z are visible inside the body of let
(+ x y z))) ; w is not visible inside here
(define (clam a)
(+ a x)) ; x is not visible here, so this will give an error
If Racket finds a line of text with a semicolon, the rest of the line (after the semicolon) is treated as whitespace. However, a frequently used convention is that one semicolon is used for a short comment on a line of code, two semicolons are used for a comment within a function on its own line, and three semicolons are used for an introductory or global comment (outside a function definition).